FBD For Types Of Support And Analysis Mechanics Essay

FBD For Types Of Support And Analysis Mechanics Essay In any problem where you are considering the forces acting on an object which is a large percentage of the problems in physics one of the first steps is to create a free-body diagram to depict the situation. Meaning A free-body diagram is a picture of the physical situation you are analyzing, which depicts all of the relevant forces acting on the objects of interest. Forces are vector quantities and should, therefore, be indicated with a magnitude and direction in the free-body diagram Coordinate Systems FBD When creating a free-body diagram, you must orient it in a coordinate system, typically a two-dimensional one. This is almost always done so that the force of gravity is pulling straight down (in the negative-y direction). Its generally preferred to orient things so that any horizontal movement will be in the positive-x direction (i.e. to the right), although so long as you maintain the same orientation you will get physically identical results. Types of Forces Acting on FBD The majority of forces in free-body diagrams, at least as they relate to classical mechanics, come from the application of Newtons Three Laws of Motion and the Law of Universal Gravitation. Free-body diagrams of other situations can involve other forces. When creating the free-body diagram of an electron, for example, you would want to include electromagnetic forces acting on it. 1.Gravitational Force You will almost always consider the gravitational force, or weight, in a free-body diagram. The magnitude of this force is calculated by mass (m) times the acceleration of gravity (g), typically treated as a constant of 9.8 m/s2 on the Earths surface. In the case of an air born object, such as a basketball player who is jumping, the only force that is typically acting on it while in the air is the weight of the object. 2.Normal Force The normal (or perpendicular) force is the contact force the surface an object rests or moves on against the object. It is directed perpendicular to the surface. In most cases, these surfaces are depicted in a free-body diagram as horizontal, with gravity down, so the normal force is directed upwards and is equal to the total force into the surface. 3.Frictional Force An object resting on a surface interacts with the surface. The force of this interaction is the frictional force, or just friction. Friction requires a bit more of an in-depth discussion than what I will present here, but for the moment I will state that friction is: Always parallel to the surface the object is interacting with. Always in the opposite direction of the force moving an object across the surface. Proportional to the normal force. 4.Tension Often, free-body diagrams will depict one component of a larger system. When we discuss a man pulling a stone slab with a rope, and were interested in the motion of the slab, we dont care about all the forces acting on the man. As such, what we really care about is the tension the force that the rope is exerting on the stone slab. Tension at any point is the magnitude of the force at that point, so tension at the point where the rope meets the object is what we care about. Assumptions The free body diagram reflects the assumption and simplifications made in order to analyze the system. If the body in question is a satellite in orbit for example, and all that is required is to find its velocity, then a single point may be the best representation. On the other hand, the brake dive of a motorcycle cannot be found from a single point, and a sketch with finite dimensions is required. Force vectors must be carefully located and labeled to avoid assumptions that presuppose a result. For example, in the accompanying diagram of a block on a ramp, the exact location of the resulting normal force of the ramp on the block can only be found after analyzing the motion or by assuming equilibrium. Other simplifying assumptions that may be considered include two-force members and three-force members. Steps for making FBD Step 1: Identify the object or system and isolate it from other objects clearly specify its boundary.Step 2: First draw non-contact external force in the diagram. Generally it is weight.Step 3: Draw contact forces which acts at the boundary of the object or system. Contact forces are normal reaction, friction, tension and applied force. In a Free Body Diagram, internal forces are not drawn, only external forces are drawn. FBD EXAMPLE These are simplified representations of an object (thebody) in a problem, and include force vectors acting on the object. This body isfreebecause the diagram will show it without its surroundings. Lets take Figure 1 to be a pictorial representation of our problem: a boat on the floor, with a rope pulling it. First we will represent the boat the body in our problem as a (really) simplified figure, a square Gravity The first force we will investigate is that due to gravity, and well call it thegravitational force. We know that the acceleration due to gravity (if on Earth) is approximatelyg= 9.8 m/s . The force, by Newtons Second Law isF= mg Wheregis the acceleration due to gravity. Lets add this to our diagram. Note that the force vector, labeledFmg, points downward, as this is the direction in which the gravitation force acts. Note that this force is commonly calledweight. This weight (mg) is different from our everyday use of the word weight (which is known in physics as mass). Normal Thenormal forceone which prevents objects from falling into whatever it is they are sitting upon. It is always perpendicularto the surface with which an object is in contact. For example, if there is a crate on the floor, then we say that the crate experiences a normal forcebythe floor; and because of this force, the crate does not fall into the floor. The normal force on the crate points upward, perpendicular to the floor. It is called the normal force becausenormalandperpendicularmean the same thing. The normal force is always perpendicular to the surface with which a body is in contact. For a body on a sloped surface (say a ramp), the normal force acting on that body is still perpendicular to the slope. In the case of our problem, the ship, we will pretend the ship is being pulled on a floor. (This is because on water there is the complication with another force, buoyancy. For simplicitys sake, we will ignore buoyancy by putting the ship on the floor.) Lets add the normal force to our FBD (Figure), and represent the normal force with the script N,. Friction Related to the normal force is thefrictional force. The two are related because they are both due to the surface in contact with the body. Whereas the normal force was perpendicular to the surface, the frictional force is parallel. Furthermore, friction opposes motion, and so its vector always points away from the direction of movement. Friction is divided into two categories, static and kinetic. These are represented by the script F, with a subscript s for static friction:, and a subscript k for kinetic friction,. As its name suggests,static frictionoccurs when the body is not moving (i.e. static). It is the force which makes it difficult to start something moving. On the other hand, kinetic frictionoccurs when the body is in motion. This is the force which causes objects to slow down and eventually stop. Friction is usually approximated as being proportional to the normal force. The proportionality constant is called the coefficient of (static or kinetic) friction. The constant is represented asfor static friction, andfor kinetic friction; it depends on the actual surface with which the body is in contact. To summarize, Weve added (kinetic) friction to our free body diagram, Figure . Push and Pull Another force which may act on an object could be any physical push or pull. This could be caused by a person pushing a crate on the floor, a child pulling on a wagon, or in the case of our example, the wind pushing on the ship. We will label the push force caused by the wind withFpush Tension Tension in an object results if pulling force act on its ends, such as in a rope used to pull a boulder. If no forces are acting on the rope, say, except at its ends, and the rope itself is in equilibrium, then the tension is the same throughout the rope. We will use the letterTto represent tension in a free body diagram. If we say that our ship is being pulled by a rope at its front end, then we can add this force to our FBD (Figure). And there we have it: all the forces acting on our ship has been labeled in Figure. This is the complete FBD for our problem of a ship being pulled along a floor by a rope Types of supports Structural systems transfer their loading through a series of elements to the ground. This is accomplished by designing the joining of the elements at their intersections. Each connection is designed so that it can transfer, or support, a specific type of load or loading condition. In order to be able to analyze a structure, it is first necessary to be clear about the forces that can be resisted, and transferred, at each level of support throughout the structure. The actual behaviour of a support or connection can be quite complicated. So much so, that if all of the various conditions were considered, the design of each support would be a terribly lengthy process. And yet, the conditions at each of the supports greatly influence the behaviour of the elements which make up each structural system. SUPPORT TYPES The three common types of connections which join a built structure to its foundation are: roller or frictionless,pinned andfixed. A fourth type, not often found in building structures, is known as asimple support. This is often idealized as a frictionless surface). All of these supports can be located anywhere along a structural element. They are found at the ends, at midpoints, or at any other intermediate points. The type of support connection determines the type of load that the support can resist. The support type also has a great effect on the load bearing capacity of each element, and therefore the system. 1. ROLLER SUPPORTS Roller supports are free to rotate and translate along the surface upon which the roller rests. The surface can be horizontal, vertical, or sloped at any angle. The resulting reaction force is always a single force that is perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. Roller supports are commonly located at one end of long bridges. This allows the bridge structure to expand and contract with temperature changes. The expansion forces could fracture the supports at the banks if the bridge structure was locked in place. Roller supports can also take the form of rubber bearings, rockers, or a set of gears which are designed to allow a limited amount of lateral movement. 2. FRICTIONLESS SUPPORTS Frictionless surface supports are similar to roller supports. The resulting reaction force is always a single force that is perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. They too are often found as supports for long bridges or roof spans. These are often found supporting large structures in zones of frequent seismic activity. The representation of a frictionless support includes one force perpendicular to the surface. 3. PINNED SUPPORTS Pinned support can resist both vertical and horizontal forces but not a moment. They will allow the structural member to rotate, but not to translate in any direction. Many connections are assumed to be pinned connections even though they might resist a small amount of moment in reality. It is also true that a pinned connection could allow rotation in only one direction; providing resistance to rotation in any other direction. The knee can be idealized as a connection which allows rotation in only one direction and provides resistance to lateral movement. The design of a pinned connection is a good example of the idealization of the reality. A single pinned connection is usually not sufficient to make a structure stable. Another support must be provided at some point to prevent rotation of the structure. The representation of a pinned support includes both horizontal and vertical forces. 4. FIXED SUPPORTS (CANTILEVER) Fixed supports can resist vertical and horizontal forces as well as a moment. Since they restrain both rotation and translation, they are also known as rigid supports. This means that a structure only needs one fixed support in order to be stable. All three equations of equilibrium can be satisfied. A flagpole set into a concrete base is a good example of this kind of support. The representation of fixed supports always includes two forces (horizontal and vertical) and a moment. 5. SIMPLE SUPPORTS Simple supports are idealized by some to be frictionless surface supports. This is correct in as much as the resulting reaction is always a single force that is perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. However, are also similar to roller supports in this. They are dissimilar in that a simple support cannot resist lateral loads of any magnitude. The built reality often depends upon gravity and friction to develop a minimal amount of frictional resistance to moderate lateral loading. For example, if a plank is laid across gap to provide a bridge, it is assumed that the plank will remain in its place. It will do so until a foot kicks it or moves it. At that moment the plank will move because the simple connection cannot develop any resistance to the lateral loal. A simple support can be found as a type of support for long bridges or roof span. Simple supports are often found in zones of frequent seismic activity. IMPLICATIONS and REACTIONS The following figure shows the analysis of the type of support condition on the deflection behavior and on the location of maximum bending stresses of a beam supported at its ends Simple Beams that are hinged on the left and roller supported on the right. Reference: Book concerned: 1) Engineering Mechanics by D.S. KUMAR 2) Engineering Mechanics by RAJPUT 3) Mechanical Sciences, G. K. Lal and Vijay Gupta, Narosa Publishing ouse Web Site concerned: 1) http://web.mit.edu 2) http://eta.physics.uoguelph.ca 3) http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca

From PDAs to Smart Phones: The Evolution of an Industry in the Beginning

Even though PDAs had innovative and sophisticated product designs, companies failed due to several reasons. First, enabling technologies were not up to par and such features as wireless connectivity, greater processing power, longer battery life and replicating streamlined versions of office software compromised the performance and size of the PDA. Another reason was due to the lack of market awareness about the functionality and the future potential of pen-based PDA and the market was still undeveloped in terms of such technology. With the lack of publicity, how would the public see any use for a PDA? This was especially true for a generation that was not technologically driven as we are today. With a device more expensive than desktop systems, it seemed that without proper marketing the public would not understand the need for it. Furthermore, potential users were unsure of the PDA’s performance, compatibility and availability showing how companies failed to address user needs and did not focus on the type of consumer that would most likely buy such a device. In addition to these setbacks, Microsoft stalled the market acceptance of PDA technology when it announced it was planning on a making a PDA, but failed to follow through with it. It is obvious that companies producing PDAs could have developed successful marketing tactics to gain momentum and build a consumer base upon such publicity. However, it can be debated whether the PDA could of survived the emergence of the smart phone. Although many companies such as Momenta and GO failed in the PDA business, Palm proved to be the most victorious. The PalmPilot was successful because the product was fast, simple, and was available for less than $300. With the extinction of PDAS came the launch of the smart phone which created competition among such companies as Research In Motion, Motorola, Samsung, and HTC. However, in 2007, these companies were in for a major battle when computer giant Apple entered into the smart phone industry. Being late to the smart phone market proved in no way to be a disadvantage for Apple as the iPhone surpassed present smart phone models. specially with its integration of touch screen technology into smart phones. Apple was able to successfully enter into the industry when it did due to its well known and trusted brand. The company’s triumph can be measured by the success of its computers, computer software including iTunes, and iPods. The iPhone has been successful due to such features as its user interface, touch screen technology, applications, synchronization with iTunes, and its simplicity along. Apple has always been known for its innovation and the iPhone was proof of that. Overall, there seems to be increasing returns in the smart phone market as its consumer base grows; nevertheless, it is not likely that a single operating system as the dominant design as the cell phone industry produces a variety of different models that accommodate user’s preferences. Overall, the smart phone industry has gained the longevity and potential for further technological advances that PDAs failed to obtain demonstrating how the timing of a product’s entry into its industry is vital in the products success.

Organization for Efficient Management Essay

â€Å"Sound organization structure is an essential prerequisite of efficient management† – Discuss this statement and point out the various principles which should be followed in developing organization structure Introduction Organization is the backbone of management. Without efficient organization, no management can perform its functions smoothly. Sound organization contributes greatly to the continuity and success of the enterprise. Once A. Carnegie, an American industrialist, said, â€Å"Take away our factories, take away our trade, our avenues of transportation, and our money. Leave nothing but our organization, and in four years we shall have re-established ourselves†. That shows the significance of managerial skills and organization. However, good organization structure does not by itself produce good performance – just as a good constitution does not guarantee great presidents or good laws a moral society. But a poor organization structure makes good performance impossible, no matter how good the individuals may be. The right organizational structure is the necessary foundation; without it the best performance in all other areas of management will be ineffectual and frustrated. CONCEPT OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE Organisation structure may be defined as the established pattern of relationships among the components of the organisation. Organisation structure in this sense refers to the network of relationships among individuals and positions in an organisation. Jennifer and Gareth have defined organisation structure as the formal system of task and reporting relationships that controls, coordinates and motivates employees so that they cooperate and work together to achieve an organisation’s goals. In fact organisation structure describes the organisation framework. Just as human beings have skeletons that define their parameters, organisations have structures that define-theirs. It is like the architectural plan of a building. Just as the architect considers various factors like cost, space, special features needed etc. while designing a good structure, the managers too must look into factors like benefits of specialisation, communication problems, problems in creating authority levels etc., before designing the organisation structure. The manager determines the work activities to get the job done, writes job descriptions, and organises people into groups and assigns them to superiors. He fixes goals and deadlines and establishes standards of performance. Operations are controlled through a reporting system. The whole structure takes the shape of a pyramid. The structural organisation implies the following things :  · The formal relationships with well-defined duties and responsibilities;  · The hierarchical relationships between superior and subordinates within the organisation;  · The tasks or activities assigned to different persons and the departments;  · Coordination of the various tasks and activities;  · A set of policies, procedures, standards and methods of evaluation of performance which are formulated to guide the people and their activities. The arrangement which is deliberately planned is the formal structure of organisation. But the actual operations and behaviour of people are not always governed by the formal structure of relations. Thus, the formal arrangement is often modified by social and psychological forces and the operating structure provides the basis of the organisation. Sound organization is an essential prerequisite of efficient management. It helps an organization in the following ways: 1. Enlarges abilities: It helps individuals to enlarge their capabilities. Division of work enables an individual to specialize in the job in which he is proficient, leading to better utilization of resources and talents. 2. Facilitates administration: It facilitates administration by avoiding waste motions, overlapping work and duplication of effort. Departmentation enables proper planning of work. Confusion and misunderstanding, over who is to perform what work, is avoided by specifying the role of managers clearly. Proportionate and balanced emphasis is put on various activities. 3. Facilitates growth and diversification:Sound organization helps in keeping activities under constant vigil and control. The organization can undertake more activities without dislocation. Talents and resources are put to good use. Opportunities are seized quickly and exploited fully, which ultimately pave way for growth and diversification. 4. Permits optimum use of resources: Human, technical and material resources are put to good use. Right persons are given right jobs. There is proper allocation of work. People know that they are supposed to do, well in advance. Necessary functions are determined and assigned, so that personnel and physical facilities are utilized effectively. 5. Stimulates creativity. It offers stimulating opportunities to people at all levels, to use their skills on jobs best suited to their nature. Delegation helps people at lower levels to do more challenging work. The higher ups, in turn, can concentrate on strategic issues putting their creative abilities to good use. 6. Facilitates coordination: Organization is an important way of achieving coordination among different departments of an enterprise. Clear authority relationships and proper assignment of work facilitates the task of achieving coordination at all levels. Poor organization leads to improper arrangement of duties and responsibilities. As a result, unimportant and trivial issues are given top priority. Activities that should be integrated or centralized are spread out and put to improper supervision. Incompetent individuals are overused while talented people are under utilized. Delays, duplications and waste motions occur with frustrating regularity. Expenses mount up. These would create utter confusion, chaos and conflict. Poor organization may mean improper arrangement of facilities and failure to achieve goals of objectives, management thinkers have laid down certain statements from time to time, from certain generally accepted understandings, which may be called the principles of organization. The principles are guidelines for planning an efficient organization structure. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the principles of organization is essential for good organization. The important principles of organization 1. Consideration of Objectives. An enterprise strives to accomplish certain objectives. Organization serves as a tool to attain these objectives. The objectives must be stated in clear terms as they play an important role in determining the type of structure, which should be developed. The principle of consideration of objectives states that only after the objectives have been stated, an organization structure should be developed to achieve them. 2. Division of Work and Specialization. The entire work in the organization should be divided into various parts so that every individual is confined to the performance of a single job, as far as possible, according to his ability and aptitudes. This is also called the principle of specialization. More a person continues on a particular job, the better will be his performance. 3. Definition of Jobs. Every position in the organization should be clearly defined in relation to other positions in the organization. The duties and responsibilities assigned to every position and its relationship with other positions should be clearly defined so that there may not be any overlapping of functions. 4. Separation of Line and Staff Functions. Whenever possible, line functions should be separated from staff activities. Line functions are those, which accomplish the main objectives of the company. In many manufacturing companies, the manufacturing and marketing departments are considered to be accomplishing the main objectives of the business and so are called the line functions and other functions like personnel, plant maintenance, financing and legal are considered as staff functions. 5. Chain of Command. There must be clear lines of authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization. Authority is the right to decide, direct and coordinate. The organization structure should facilitate delegation of authority. Clarity is achieved through delegation by steps or levels from the top position to the operating level. From the chief executive, a line of authority may proceed to departmental managers, to supervisors or foremen and finally to workers. This chain of command is also known as scalar principle of organization. 6. Parity of Authority and Responsibility. Responsibility should always be coupled with corresponding authority. Each subordinate must have sufficient authority to discharge the responsibility entrusted to him. This principle suggests that if a plant manager in a multi-plant organization is held accountable for all activities in his plant, he should not be subject to orders from company headquarters specifying the quantity of raw materials he should buy or from whom he should purchase raw materials. If a supervisor is responsible for the quality of work of his department, he should not be asked to accept as a member of his workforce an employee who has been hired without consulting him. 7. Unity of Command. No one in the organization should report to more than one supervisor. Everyone in the organization should know to whom he reports and who reports to him. Stated simply, everyone should have only one boss. Receiving directions from several supervisors may result in confusion, chaos, conflicts and lack of action. So each member of the organization should receive directions from and report to one superior only. This will avoid conflict of command and help in fixing responsibilities. 8. Exceptional Matters. This principle requires that organization structure should be so designed that managers are required to go through the exceptional matters only. The subordinates should take all the routine decisions, whereas problems involving unusual matters and policy decisions should be referred to higher levels. 9. Span of Supervision. The span of supervision means the number of persons a manager or a supervisor can direct. If too less number of employees are reporting to a supervisor, his time will not be utilized properly. But, on the other hand, there is a limit to the number of subordinates that can be efficiently supervised by an executive. Both these points should be kept in mind while grouping and allocating the activities to various departments. It is difficult to give a definite number of persons a manager can direct. It will depend upon the nature of the work and a number of other factors. 10. Balance of Various Factors. There should be proper balance in the formal structure of the organization in regard to factors having conflicting claims, e.g., between centralization and decentralization, span of supervision and lines of communication and authority allocated to departments and personnel at various levels. 11. Communication. A good communication network is essential to achieve the objectives of an organization. No doubt the line of authority provides readymade channels of communication downward and upward, still some blocks in communication occur in many organizations. The confidence of the superior in his subordinates and two-way communication are the factors that unite an organization into an effectively operating system. 12. Flexibility. The organization structure should be flexible so that it can be easily and economically adapted to the changes in the nature of business as well as technical innovations. Flexibility of organization structure ensures the ability to change with the environment before something serious may occur. So the organization structure should be such that it permits expansion and contraction without disrupting the basic activities. 13. Continuity. Change is the law of nature. Many changes take place outside the organization. These changes must be reflected in the organization. For this, the form of organization structure must be able to serve the enterprise and to attain its objectives for a long period of time. Types of Organizational Structure in Management Small companies can use a variety of organizational structures. However, a small company’s organization structure must be designed to effectively meet its goals and objectives, according to the Lamar University article titled â€Å"Organizational Structure† on its website. Types of organizational structure in management can include flat structures as well as functional, product and geographical-structured organizations. Flat Organizational Structure Many small companies use a flat organizational structure, where very few levels of management separate executives from analysts, secretaries and lower-level employees. Flat organizations work best when a company has less than 20 employees, especially if the company employs one or two employees per department. One advantage of using a flat organizational structure for management is that decisions can be made relatively quickly. The flat organizational lacks the typical bureaucracy of taller organizational structures–those with many levels of management. Functional Organizational Structure A functional organizational structure is centered on job functions, such as marketing, research and development and finance. Small companies should use a functional organization when they want to arrange their organizational structure by department. For example, a small company may have a director, two managers and two analysts in the marketing department. The director would likely report to the Chief Executive Officer, or CEO, and both managers would report to the director. In addition, each manager may have an analyst reporting to them. A functional organizational structure works well when small companies are heavily project-focused. Directors can assign certain projects to managers, who can then divvy up tasks with their analysts. The department can then more effectively meet their project deadlines. Product Organzational Structure A product organizational structure has managers reporting to the president or head of the company by product type. Product organizational structures are primarily used by retail companies that have stores in various cities. However, stores in each city may still need a local human resources or marketing department to carry out functions locally. For example, a small department store company may have a vice president of sporting goods, housewares and general merchandise at the corporate office. One manager may report to each vice president. However, each manager may oversee the work of one or more field marketing employees who travel and handle local marketing stores in several states. These field marketing employees may work for the sporting goods manager one week in League City, Texas, then do merchandising for the housewares manager another week in the Sugarland, Texas, market. Geographical Organizational Structure The Small Business Administration is responsible for defining small businesses in different industries. For example, in manufacturing, the SBA usually considers a company with 500 or fewer employees a small business. Point is, small businesses are still large enough to use a geographical organizational structure. A geographical organizational structure is when companies decentralize the functional areas. For example, unlike the product organizational structure, there may be a local marketing, finance, accounting and research development person based in each region. For example, a small consumer products food company may be large enough to place a marketing research manager and analyst in each of six different regions. This can be important because consumers in various areas have different tastes. Hence, a geographical structure will enable the company to better serve the local market. ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS The study of organisational structure is necessary to understand organisational effectiveness. In simple terms better the structure of an organisation more effective would be the organisation and vice versa. You must be aware that some organisations perform better and grow more rapidly than other. On the extreme side some organisations perform badly and within a short period of time go out of business. Determinants of Organisational Effectiveness Several factors influence the organisational effectiveness Managerial Policies and Practices Managerial policies and practices integrate the entire organisation, maintain balance among the interest groups in the organisation, and accommodate them with the external environment. Managerial policies and practices have a direct bearing on the Organisational effectiveness. The major managerial policies and practices are as follow : Strategy: A strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. Goals define where does the organisation want to go and strategies define how will the organization reach there. In other words, strategy is the determination of basic long term goals of the organisation, the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve them. The strategy is the most important factor of an organisation which decides the future course of action for the organisation. New strategy is often selected based upon environmental needs, and then the top management attempts to redesign the orga nisation to achieve those ends. Strategy: A strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. Goals define where does the organisation want to go and strategies define how will the organization reach there. In other words, strategy is the determination of basic long term goals of the organisation, the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve them. The strategy is the most important factor of an organisation which decides the future course of action for the organisation. New strategy is often selected based upon environmental needs, and then the top management attempts to redesign the organisation to achieve those ends. Decision-making: Decision-making is choosing among alternatives. It has close relationship with all traditional management functions. The decision that management makes has a profound impact on the success of an organisation. Rewards: Organisational success to a large extent depends on how is management able to gain support of its team by way of compensating them for the efforts they are making for the achievement of organizational goals. It is primarily meant to sustain employee morale and improve or maintain productivity. Communication: It is the linkages among members of the organisation whereby they exchange information. The organisational structure has to provide for a perfect communication among different members of the organisation. Organisational communication is the grease that enables any organisational change. Environmental Characteristics Organisational effectiveness is influenced to a great degree by the external environmental characteristics. It is dependent on how is the external environment predictable, complex and hostile to the organisation and its activity. The major characteristics are as follow : Predictability: Predictability refers to how certain or uncertain an organisation may be towards supply of various resources; human, raw material etc. It is an element of external environment. Complexity: Environment complexity refers to the heterogeneity and range of activities which are relevant to an organisation’s operations. How many diverse groups from external environment the organisations have to deal with. Hostility: A hostile environment is one in which the underpinning of the organisation is threatened. How is an organisation viewed by the people at large. You may recall the case of Union Carbide after the Bhopal gas leakage about the hostility of environment Employee characteristics The characteristics of the human resource could make or break an organisation. It is employee characteristics, which is reflected in the success or failure of an organisation. The major characteristics are as follow : Goals: Goals define where the organisation wants to go. Goals are intentions that an individual or an organisation would like to achieve in the course of their working. Goals provide a directional nature to people’s behaviour and guide their thoughts and actions. Skills: Skill is the ability to engage in a set of behaviour that are functionally related to one another and that lead to a desired performance in a given area. The skill can be technical, managerial, behavioural etc. Motives: A motive is an inner state of a person that energizes activates, or moves and directs towards the achievement of a pre defined goal. The motivated employees have high motives to perform better and achieve the targets. Attitudes: Attitudes are evaluative statements- either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, events, or people. Attitudes influence job behaviour and hence organisational effectiveness. Values: Values represent basic convictions or a specific mode of conduct. It generally influences an individual’s attitude and behaviour. The value that a person holds influences his or her motivation and subsequently behaviour. Organisational Characteristics Organisational characteristics refer to the general conditions that exist within an organisation. Various organisational characteristics influence organisational effectiveness. The major characteristics are as follow: Structure: An organisational structure defines how are job tasks formally divided, grouped and coordinated. For organisational effectiveness, six elements need to be addressed while designing organisational structure. These are: work specialisation, departmentation, chain of command, span of control, centralisation and decentralisation, and formalization. Technology: The term technology refers to how does an organisation transfer its inputs into outputs. Every organisation has at least one technology for converting financial, human and physical resources into products or services. The choice of technology and its use influences organisational effectiveness. Size: In a narrow sense organisational size refers to the number of people in an organisation. But, if we take a broader view, size refers to the physical capacity of the organisation, the personnel available to the organisation, the organisational inputs or outputs and the discretionary resources available to an organisation. It is the size which influences the structure which in turn influences organisational effectiveness. Benefits of organisational effectiveness:  · Structures and behaviours are aligned with business needs.  · Disruption to business is minimised which reduces operational risk.  · Employee morale is sustained which maintains productivity.  · The right employees and talent are retained.  · Employees objectives and rewards are aligned to business goals. CONCLUSION Organisation structure refers to the grouping of activities and establishing pattern of relationship among the various parts of the organisation. It involves the assignment of tasks, establishment of hierarchical relationship, creation of policies, procedures, coordination and control of all activities in the organisation. The Organisational designs are dependent on a wide variety of factors; namely the management philosophy, the size of the organisation, the type of technology, and the external environmental factors. Therefore, there cannot be tailor-made solutions for all organisations. The ultimate aim for the organisation is to be effective and organisational structure is a tool in the attainment of organisational objectives. The components of organisational effectiveness are managerial policies and practices, employee characteristics, organizational characteristics and the environmental characteristics. Organizational structure is what ensures that your organization will function smoothly and as you intended. You should think about structure early in the development of your organization, but be aware that the type that fits best may change as your organization grows.

Problematic California Prison System Essay - 849 Words

California has one of the most dysfunctional and problematic prison system in US. Over the last 30 years, California prison increased eightfolds (201). California Department of Correctional and Rehabilitation (CDCR) does little to reform prisoners and serve as human warehouse rather than a correction institution. Californias prison system fails the people it imprisons and society it tries to protect. In many cases, Californias prison system exacerbates the pre-existing problems and aids in the formation of new problems for prisoners. This paper discuses the criminogenic effects of overcrowding, and reduction/elimination of programs and how it negatively affects California and the ballooning prison population and possible remedies.†¦show more content†¦Criminogenic Factors In the best of times, prison is bad place. Prison strictly regulate the inmates, thus leaving little room for personal choice. Under the watchful eyes of guards and other inmates, privacy is non-existen t. Personal space is shared with other inmates and conflicts ensued. Add in criminogenic factors like overcrowding, and reduction/elimination of programs and prison life can be unbearable. Overcrowding On average, CDCR imprisons over 167,000 adult prisoners and is operating at 188% capacity (Lynch, Lecture 3-1-10) while the recidivism rate of prisoners in a study is 34% (221). With stricter policies, the prison population grew faster than the prison buildings can expand. Gyms and other recreational rooms in prison were converted into rooms to house hundreds of beds for inmates. Being housed in such close quarters has dire effects on prisoners. Haney notes that â€Å"overcrowding affects prisoners mental and physical health by increasing the level of uncertainty with which they regularly must cope† (202). Farington reports that inmates from overcrowded prisons are more likely to reoffend once released from prison than inmates from less crowded prison (206). Overcrowding has more detrimental effect on youth. Younger prisoners are more likely to engage in prison fights and more likely to be victimized by older inmates (205).Inmates often feel the need to project a tough emotionless image. Prisoners joinShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Overcrowded Conditions in US Prisons1564 Words   |  6 PagesDue to budget crises in states across the United States of America, state governments must cut funding to their punishment facilities causing overcrowding in prisons to increase every day. Overcrowded prisons pose a potential breeding ground for crime as hundreds of inmates are squeezed into small accommodations. Thousands of low-level offenders receive jail sentences each day, these criminals make up about a third of the inmates in the United States. 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